Industrial Safety and Health Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Industrial Safety and Health Management - Essay Example aste disposal, conservation of natural resources and energy, to reduction of the amount of waste produced and ensuring that wastes are handled in a manner that is environmentally sound. RCRA is responsible for regulation of the handling of solid wastes such as garbage, underground petroleum products storage tanks products or particular chemicals and hazardous waste. All the three Acts are under the United States Environmental Protection Agency. All these Acts are in place with the sole objective of protecting the human health and the environment from the potential hazard of disposing waste. They all have got objectives that are merging and this means they are fitting together through that singular objective. They are related to OSHA (Occupational Safety &Health Administration) in that they have similar objectives. OSHA’s objective is to ensure health and safety is adhered to by the employers especially as regards employees’ workplace. Employers must therefore comply with all appropriate OSHA standards. This means that employers must fulfill the General Duty Clause of the OSH Act, which necessitates employers to maintain safe workplace, free of any serious recognized

Anthropology and Ethnic Boundary Markers Essay Example for Free

Anthropology and Ethnic Boundary Markers Essay Chapter Four: What Are The Underlying Reasons Behind Ethnic Conflict, And The Consequences Of These Conflicts? Questions 1) In what ways do you think you might experience Ethnic Conflict – on a much smaller level in your own life? Do you see it in other peoples lives? 2) Can you identify some of the Ethnic Boundary markers you see in our own culture (specifically microcultures)? Do these markers change depending where you go? Are these markers a good thing or a bad thing? What Ethnic Boundary Markers would you like to see change? 3) How fragile is our own nation? Where do you see Ethnic intolerance or Ethnocentrism ? Do you see fragments of ethnic stratification? 4) If Ethnic Conflict were to ever â€Å"break out†, in the U. S. what do you think would be the main causes specifically? 5) Place yourself in the shoes of an Anthropologist who is taking a fully emic approach to their Ethnic Conflict research. Are the hardships involved worth the benefits that could result from the research? Is â€Å"the juice worth the squeeze†? 6) Do you agree with Anthropologists who feel the need to downplay violence within Ethnic Conflict in order to help propel the idea of non-western stabilization? 7) Do you agree with Anthropologists who feel that refugee camps are â€Å"part of the problem†? 8) Do you think our world will ever see an end to Ethnic Conflict?

Reputation in Beowulf Essay -- Anglo Saxon Literature

The famous poet James Russell Lowell once said, â€Å"Reputation is only a candle, of wavering and uncertain flame, and easily blown out, but it is the light by which the world looks for and finds merit† . Reality stresses the importance to be more concerned with personal character than self reputation, because character beholds who you really are, while your reputation is merely what others perceive. The epic of Beowulf, written in Old English, describes the adventures of a great Scandinavian warrior of the sixth century. Having an outstanding reputation was an important aspect of life, and in the world of Beowulf it was no different. Having a good name is the same as immortality because the name will be placed in history and will be forever remembered. When introducing himself to the Danes, Beowulf was sure to mention his achievements such as the slaying of a tribe of giants and how he had driven away countless enemies from his homeland. In his eyes, personal reputation is the most valuable possession as he took what ever means necessary in order to build a handsome repituar. After Grendel’s mother seeks him out to exact revenge for the crime that she believes that he has committed against her, he sees this as an opportunity to further his reputation. The definition of justice in terms of Grendel’s mother is to seek out the one who is responsible for the death of her son and take his life as well. This is a justified reason for her to take revenge. Her only son was taken from her and the line is very thin between her and her son because they perceive events as though they were cursed. Being that t hey are descendants of Cain, the biblical son of Adam and Eve, the brother of Able who Cain believed was blessed by God kills Abl... ...atiently waits because she knows that the same person who slew her son would be coming after her as well. Beowulf’s pursuit of the mother is nothing more than another way to build his reputation because if he had slain Grendel and it got him such recognition, slaying both ogre’s would raise his reputation tremendously thus bringing him even closer to his name being secured on the cover of the history book. Him going after Grendel’s mother has nothing or very little to do with the fact that she is a woman, it however has everything to do with the fame he would get and the respect that would be associated with his name. In conclusion, for Beowulf, the most important thing is reputation and the immortality that goes along with having a reputable name. Having a good reputation ensured that long after you die the birth name will be an official heroic figure in history.

We Must Put an End to Gender-related Stereotypes and Stereotyping Essay

We Must Put an End to Gender-related Stereotypes I have heard it said many times and by many women, "I wish that I were a man. Men have it so easy. . ." It is a statement which stems from the fear and anger that comes from so many years of oppression and abuse; a statement which stems from the pressure to meet the present impossible standards of beauty and bodily perfection. At times it seems to be an understandable statement to make. Admittedly, I have found myself wishing that very absurdity when the pressures of being a woman have seemed to be too much. But as I get older, and hopefully wiser, I am happy to say, and even very proud, that yes! I am a woman. It is a very exciting time for me as a young woman to watch the changes that our world is undergoing at the present moment. So much is going on around us that it seems like anything could happen and that all things are possible. It is all very scary and exciting at the same time. I am not exactly sure how or when the Women's Rights movement began, but I do believe that we have come a long way, and that we also have a long way to go before we are free of those gender-related stereotypes and immense pressures to be "The Perfect Woman." I know that many skeptics will question whether or not that freedom is attainable, but I truly do believe that at this point in time all things are possible. I believe in the equality of the sexes. I believe in the equality of all people whether they be black, white, female, or male. Perhaps it is easy for me to be so positive and hopeful amidst these skeptics because of the family that I have. I don't think that I was aware of the "roles" that men and women adopt because in my family there seemed to be no roles. Both of my parents have... ...he worth of the true beauty within us that so often goes unseen. I believe that every woman in America experiences this. There is so little self-acceptance as we end up living our lives for the fantastic expectations of men. Both Alice Walker and Nora Ephron were finally able to transcend their hang-ups but it took them so many years and an awful lot of tears to be able to finally throw up their hands and give up trying to meet all of the expectations of the world. It is sad that a woman must reach her mid-life, when the pure beauty of youth is lost forever, before she is finally able to shed all of those insecurities that are forced upon her throughout her life. It is hard, and I believe that an equal amount of effort is required from both of the sexes if we are ever going to be able to move beyond this. It is time to look within or we will continue to go without.

Fundamental Change of American Society

The American War for Independence was brought on due to the subconscious aversion to British control. Americans increasingly wanted nothing to do with Great Britain and developed different societal Ideas from them constantly. America was growing as a nation, but to grow even further, they needed liberation from the Crown. Patriots took supremacy over all Tories in favor of the Crown and the rest of those remaining impartial.They felt strongly about getting rid of British existence by he time the war had commenced, and in 1779, a newspaper stated, â€Å"Instantly banish every Tory from among you†¦ [And] send them to the Island of Britain† (Doc. B). Because of the war, American society was changed in numerous ways. American fundamentals were altered by the American Revolution in regard to class differences economically, the growing trend of a strong central government politically, and the granting of more freedoms socially.Before the war, America's economy was controlled by Britain's mercantilist system; therefore, America was comprised of farmers in the south and merchants in the orth. Without the mercantilist system, disputes arose on whether the new country should be based primarily on agriculture or manufacturing and trade. Those In favor of the Jeffersonian idea believed that farming was, indeed, a very important occupation (Doc. F). Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican, believed farmers were so virtuous because they were economically independent and were self- sustaining.Because of the new land ordinances, there was plentiful land for farming utilization, too. Alexander Hamilton, a Federalist and first Secretary of the Treasury, n the other hand, believed that imports and exports was the best way to better the economy and develop as a country. He also pressed for a national bank to stabilize and Improve the nation's credit, whereas Hamilton was strongly opposed as he sought a more stately-governed nation. The post-war economy gave the citiz ens many hardships, though, and there was serious civil unrest in some areas (Doc. G).The classes differed in America greatly due to the poor economy, making a huge gap between the rich and the poor. Rebellions arose, including the Shays Rebellion, hich took place In Massachusetts from 1786-1787. It occurred because of the financial diffculties the lower-class people were going through, the lack of credit in the new paper money, and harsh policies to decrease the debt. A militia had to be formed instantaneously and the government power eventually won, but It showed that a strong military was needed for the government to be successful and reduce the amount of rebellions.Under the Articles of Confederation, the American government had little success. Federalists and Anti-Federalists existed, where Federalists generally pursued a strong entral government as the Ann-Federalists wanted the opposite. The Articles of Confederation gave a state-supported government, but It wasnt successful In many ways. There were many rebellions arising due to the weak government as a new 1 OF3 nation, so tne Idea 0T a strong central government Degan to arlse . Ine reaerallst papers addressed many aspects of why the Constitution should be ratified.The main ideas included the following: including the fact that a strong government would better defeat the rising up of factions and other rebellions. The Annapolis Convention occurred in 1786 and resulted in a call for a Constitutional Convention. In September of 1787, the Convention took place to revise the Articles of Confederation, but Alexander Hamilton and James Madison schemed to propose a new government all together: the Constitution. James Madison's main idea resulted in the Virginia Plan with a very powerful, proportionate bicameral legislature, an executive, and a judiciary.After the Constitution, the paper Federalist No. 51 was published in February 1788 and created by Madison to get across to the people the structure of he gove rnment planned by the Constitution Convention. The main ideas were: dependency and encroachment to assert that each department should be as independent as possible, the legislature to assert that it is the strongest branch with equally powerful individual branches, usurpations and security to guard from usurpations because it is divided into distinct and separate departments, and factions to end any political uprisings.Basically, the Federalist Papers advocated a means by which checks and balances can be created and a separation of powers. The government had more power than the Articles of Confederation now, but Madison still feared the Constitution gave too limited of federal government power (Doc. l). Since the Constitution was implemented, the Federalists and Ann-Federalists were now disputing about loose and strict interpretations of the document. For example, if a law came about that wasn't specifically stated in the Constitution that the Federalists wanted, the Anti-Federalist s deemed it unconstitutional.The Federalists argued that if a law was not expressly stated against, the law was constitutional. From being a divided, state-governed nation under the Articles of Confederation, to a united nation under the U. S. Constitution, the United States was now under the control of a strong central government and on the road to being one of the most powerful countries in the world. During the American Revolution, many social changes were brought about. In the war, women were taking part in activities that men typically only performed.Deborah Sampson was one of the women that participated in the war to assert her importance as a woman. She disguised as a man in order to serve in the Continental Army. Other women who were said to participate in battles were given the nickname â€Å"Molly Pitcher. The phrase â€Å"Patriot Woman† came into existence, and before the war, both terms were always separated (Doc. A). Daughters of Liberty used their home skills t o create a home manufacturing system for all the soldiers to support the war. Molly Wallace stated her claim that since women were allowed to read, then they should be allowed to speak (Doc.J). She wanted for women's voices to be heard since they were just as educated and active as men in society. Unfortunately, this speech signified that, although women contributed very much in the war, women's rights were not significantly changed. As far as Native American relations, they were hoping to have peaceful relations with Americans since the King told them to â€Å"take [the Americans] by the hand as friends and brothers† (Doc. C). The Native Americans were not included in the Treaty of Paris of 1783, however, as the United States were making pollcles 0T separate treatles wltnln trlDes.I ne Natlves were quite apprenenslve, ana they stated, â€Å"we thought that [the treaty's] conclusion would have promoted a friendship between the United States and the Indians† (Doc. E). T he whites were moving west now, as the Proclamation Line of 1783 was eliminated (Doc. H). The Northwest Ordinance was declared to let the Americans move westerly as long as they did not bring any slavery into the areas with them. The Indians were in no place mentioned in the laws of the Northwest Ordinance and were again trying to be disregarded by the Americans.On the other hand, the northern slavery opposition started growing even more, which was a huge step in social change for the blacks. They were also accounted for in Congress due to the Three-fifths Compromise allowing the slave population to be represented in the southern states in the House. Religious freedom came about as well during the American Revolution as the Virginia Statutes stated, â€Å"no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever† (Doc. D).This promoted religious diversity in the United States; thus, encouraging the American Identity. The First Amend ment of the Bill of Rights also established freedom of religion, as well as freedom of speech, the right to assemble, and freedom of the press. These new freedoms escalated to the fundamental idea of a free country. The fundamentals of American society were changed by the American Revolution. Economic change in class differences, political change in the strong central government trend, and social change in the spreading idea of freedom.Egalitarianism was an overall change in the society, too, meaning everyone is equal. The main effect of the revolution was a new strong federal government brought about by the Constitution, which gave everyone equal rights. This is a main foundation for the United States of America's prospering. Without the ideal of equal rights for all, America would be a completely different society all together, without â€Å"life, liberty, or the pursuit of happiness. â€Å"

Topic Areas of Environmental Sociology

Topic Areas of Environmental Sociology Environmental sociology is a subfield of the wider discipline in which researchers and theorists focus on the relationships between society and the environment. The subfield took shape following the environmental movement of the 1960s. Within this subfield, sociologists might examine specific institutions and structures like law, politics, and economy, and their relationships to environmental conditions; and also on the relationship between group behavior and environmental conditions, like for example the environmental implications of waste disposal and recycling. Importantly, environmental sociologists also study how environmental conditions affect the everyday lives, economic livelihood, and public health of populations. Environmental Sociology Topic Areas Climate change  is arguably the most important topic of research among environmental sociologists today. Sociologists investigate the human, economic, and political causes of climate change, and they investigate the effects that climate change has on many aspects of social life, like behavior, culture, values, and the economic health of populations experiencing its effects. Central to the sociological approach to climate change is the study of the relationship between economy and environment. A key analytic focus within this subfield is the particular effects that a capitalist economyone premised on continual growthhas on the environment. Environmental sociologists who study this relationship might focus on the implications of consumption of natural resources in processes of production, and methods of production and resource recapture that aim to be sustainable, among other things. The relationship between energy and environment is another important topic among environmental sociologists today. This relationship is intimately connected to the first two listed, as the burning of fossil fuels to power industry is recognized by climate scientists to be the central driver of global warming, and thus climate change. Some environmental sociologists who focus on energy study the way different populations think about energy use and its implications, and how their behavior is connected to these ideas; and they might study the way energy policy shapes behavior and outcomes. Politics, law, and public policy, and the relationships these have to environmental conditions and problems are also areas of focus among environmental sociologists. As institutions and structures that shape corporate and individual behavior, they have indirect effects on the environment. Sociologists who focus on these areas investigate topics like the extent to which and through what mechanisms laws regarding emissions and pollution are enforced; how people act collectively to shape them; and the forms of power that might enable or prevent them from doing so, among other things. Many environmental sociologists study the relationship between social behavior and environment. In this area there is a large degree of overlap between environmental sociology and the sociology of consumption, as many sociologists recognize the important and consequential relationships between consumerism  and consumer behavior, and environmental problems and solutions. Environmental sociologists also examine how social behaviors, like the  use of transportation, consumption of energy, and waste and recycling practices, shape environmental outcomes, as well as how environmental conditions shape social behavior. Another important area of focus among environmental sociologists is the relationship between inequality and environment. Numerous studies have documented that income, racial, and gender inequality make the populations that experience them more likely to experience negative environmental outcomes like pollution, proximity to waste, and lack of access to natural resources. The study of environmental racism is, in fact, a specific area of focus within environmental sociology. Environmental sociologists continue to study these relationships today, and the way populations and institutions respond to them, and they also examine them on a global scale, looking at the way populations among nations have differing relationships to the environment based on relative privilege and wealth. Notable Environmental Sociologists Notable environmental sociologists today include John Bellamy Foster, John Foran, Christine Shearer, Richard Widick, and Kari Marie Norgaard. The late Dr. William Freudenberg is considered an important pioneer in this subfield who made great contributions to it, and Indian scientists and activist Vandana Shiva is considered an honorary environmental sociologist by many. Where to Find More Information on Environmental Sociology To learn more about this vibrant and growing subfield of sociology, visit the website for the American Sociological Associations section on Environment and Technology, and review the research published in journals like  Environmental Sociology, Human Ecology, Nature and Culture, Organization and Environment, Population and Environment, Rural Sociology, and Society and Natural Resources. Students interested in pursuing environmental sociology will find many undergraduate programs with a focus in this area, as well as an increasing number of graduate sociology and interdisciplinary programs that offer specialized study and training.

Hamet Essays - Characters In Hamlet, English-language Films

Hamet Essays - Characters In Hamlet, English-language Films Hamet Your reading of the ghost will deeply affect your understanding of the meaning of Hamlet as a play. Argue for one or another reading of the ghosts reality and explain what that means in terms of what Shakespeare is trying to say in the play. Authors view and message Hamlets is one of the most recognizable work of William Shakespeare. The primary reason for this popularity is that it go so much criticism that any other play of any artist received. People view this play in different perspective. Obsession, revenge, unfaithfulness, adultery, treachery, and evil are some of the adjective that are constantly being in reference to this great play. The first two adjectives are used in reference to Hamlet, unfaithfulness and adultery for Gertrude, treachery for Claudius and evil to represent the Ghost (the individual view point of the Ghost will deeply affect how we see the play and its character). The take home message: William Shakespeares Hamlet showed us that how obsession could lead a person to his downfall. It does not matter for whether it was the obsession for the revenge or the fatherly love. Here, two things are different. Revenge and fatherly love. Revenge for his father's murder and love for his father is different. His father died, and he shut his door to his mind. Whatever was in his mind, he just translated in his language. Shakespeare utilizes the Ghost as a mere instrument to let the audience know what is going on in Hamlets mind. Ghost appeared thrice in the play. It came before the soldiers, and then to Hamlet and third time in front of Hamlet and his mother. Shakespeare left the decision to the audience how to perceive hamlet, the character as a whole. Some people may perceive hamlet as a hero, while some as a villain. While some as a psycho. I do not see him as a villain. Also I do not think the ghost is real. Situation plays the role of villain. The validity of the ghost is the topic that critics have been arguing since long time. There has been three theory postulated on the validity of Ghost in Hamlet. Residual or Archaic theory assumes that the Ghost is real and it is his fathers spirit. It also assumes that prince hamlets father was actually murdered by Claudius, which gives Hamlet valid reason to seek revenge. Dominant view assumes that Ghost is real, but it is not his fathers spirit. So whether it was really murder or not remains a question? Was the Ghost trying to ruin Hamlets life? Was he directing prince Hamlet in an adverse direction, which would eventually lead to his death? Here we think of Ghost as evil. Emergent view assumes that there is no Ghost. The whole thing was created in prince Hamlets mind. I agree with the Emergent view. I do not think there is a ghost or the fathers spirit. One of the most famous phrase in this play is something is rotten in the state of Denmark. I think it is symbolizes Hamlets mind. It was the imbalance in his mind that created the ghost. From the Play One of the most famous phrase in this play is something is rotten in the state of Denmark. I think it is symbolizes Hamlets mind. Obsession Hamlet is very much obsessed with the grief of his fathers death and the marriage of his mother and his uncle. Obsession has no boundaries. Ghost Why he believes Ghost? Alternatively, how he comes up with the idea of ghost. Hamlet needed some kind of justification for his act. Why did the ghost called hamlet alone to tell the secret of the murder? If the ghost is real, then the soldier already knew that there is a ghost or King Hamlets spirit. First time, the soldiers see the ghost was just the illusion. Second time, only hamlet confronts the ghost and listen the whole story. Why did the Horatio saw the ghost? In the old time, just remembrance. King Hamlet died two months before which is not a very long time. In the olden times, people had a strong belief in Ghost and spirit. The remembrance of King Hamlet was still very fresh in peoples

The Important Role of US Third Parties

The Important Role of US Third Parties While their candidates for President of the United States and Congress have little chance of being elected, America’s third political parties have historically played a major role in bringing about sweeping social, cultural, and political reform. Womens Right to Vote Both the Prohibition and Socialist Parties promoted the womens suffrage movement during the late 1800s. By 1916, both Republicans and Democrats supported it and by 1920, the 19th Amendment giving women the right to vote had been ratified. Child Labor Laws The Socialist Party first advocated laws establishing minimum ages and limiting hours of work for American children in 1904. The Keating-Owen Act established such laws in 1916. Immigration Restrictions The Immigration Act of 1924 came about as a result of support by the Populist Party starting as early as the early 1890s. Reduction of Working Hours You can thank the Populist and Socialist Parties for the 40-hour work week. Their support for reduced working hours during the 1890s led to the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. Income Tax In the 1890s, the Populist and Socialist Parties supported a progressive tax system that would base a persons tax liability on their amount of income. The idea led to the ratification of the 16th Amendment in 1913. Social Security The Socialist Party also supported a fund to provide temporary compensation for the unemployed in the late 1920s. The idea led to the creation of laws establishing unemployment insurance and the Social Security Act of 1935. Tough on Crime In 1968, the American Independent Party and its presidential candidate George Wallace advocated getting tough on crime. The Republican Party adopted the idea in its platform and the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 was the result. (George Wallace won 46 electoral votes in the 1968 election. This was the highest number of electoral votes collected by a third party candidate since Teddy Roosevelt, running for the Progressive Party in 1912, won  a total of  88 votes.) America’s First Political Parties The Founding Fathers wanted the American federal government and its inevitable politics to remain non-partisan. As a result, the U.S. Constitution makes no mention whatsoever of political parties. In Federalist Papers No. 9 and No. 10, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively refer to the dangers of political factions they had observed in the British government. America’s first president, George Washington, never joined a political party and warned against the stagnation and conflict they can cause in his Farewell Address. â€Å"However [political parties] may now and then answer popular ends, they are likely in the course of time and things, to become potent engines, by which cunning, ambitious, and unprincipled men will be enabled to subvert the power of the people and to usurp for themselves the reins of government, destroying afterwards the very engines which have lifted them to unjust dominion.† - George Washington, Farewell Address, September 17, 1796 However, it was Washington’s own closest advisers who spawned the American political party system. Hamilton and Madison, despite writing against political factions in the Federalist Papers, became the core leaders of the first two functional opposing political parties. Hamilton emerged as the leader of the Federalists, who favored a strong central government, while Madison and Thomas Jefferson led the Anti-Federalists, who stood for a smaller, less-powerful central government. It was the early battles between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists that spawned the environment of partisanship that now dominates all levels of American government.   Leading Modern Third Parties While the following is far from all of the recognized third parties in American politics, the Libertarian, Reform, Green, and Constitution Parties are usually the most active in presidential elections. Libertarian Party Founded in 1971, the Libertarian party is the third largest political party in America. Over the years, Libertarian Party candidates have been elected to many state and local offices. Libertarians believe the  federal government  should play a minimal role in the day-to-day affairs of the people. They believe that the only appropriate role of government is to protect the citizens from acts of physical force or fraud. A libertarian-style government would, therefore, limit itself to a police, court, prison system and military. Members support the free market economy and are dedicated to the protection of civil liberties and individual freedom. Reform Party In 1992, Texan H. Ross Perot spent over $60 million of his own money to run for president as an independent. Perots national organization, known as United We Stand America succeeded in getting Perot on the ballot in all 50 states. Perot won 19 percent of the vote in November, the best result for a third party candidate in 80 years. Following the 1992 election, Perot and United We Stand America organized into the Reform Party. Perot again ran for president as the Reform Party candidate in 1996 winning 8.5 percent of the vote. As its name implies, Reform Party members are dedicated to reforming the American political system. They support candidates they feel will re-establish trust in government by displaying high ethical standards coupled with fiscal responsibility and accountability. Green Party The American Green Partys platform is based on the following 10 Key Values: Ecological wisdomCommunity-based economicsGrassroots democracyDecentralizationGender equalityPersonal and social responsibilityRespect for diversityNonviolenceGlobal responsibility Greens seek to restore balance through recognizing that our planet and all of life are unique aspects of an integrated whole, and also through affirming the significant inherent values and contribution of each part of that whole. The Green Party - Hawaii Constitution Party In 1992, American Taxpayer Party presidential candidate Howard Phillips appeared on the ballot in 21 states. Mr. Phillips again ran in 1996, achieving ballot access in 39 states. At its national convention in 1999, the party officially changed its name to the Constitution Party and again chose Howard Phillips as its presidential candidate for 2000. The Constitution Party favors a government based on a strict interpretation of the U.S. Constitution and the principals expressed in it by the Founding Fathers. They support a government limited in scope, structure, and power of regulation over the people. Under this goal, the Constitution Party favors a return of most governmental powers to the states, communities and the people.

Business Man and Economics Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business Man and Economics - Case Study Example Apple develops and sells personal computers, portable media players, mobile phones and computer software and hardware. As of September 2007, the company operates 200 retail stores in five continents. "Niche marketers presumably understand their customers' needs so well that the customers willingly pay a premium" 11 is a strategy that has worked for Harley Davidson and the financials of its custom bikes market segment, the leader in grossing high sales volume at premium prices substantiates the fact. The following strategies must be implemented by Harley to maximize its profitability by bringing in more specialization in its core competency and niche markets. Since Harley's high end custom bikes command as much as 50% of the market share, this denotes that competitive forces are not a threat and thus Harley must concentrate more on being a customer centered company. "By monitoring customer needs, it can decide which customer groups and emerging needs are the most important to serve, given its resources and objectives" 12. The USP that differentiates Harley from all its competitors is it's much sought after brand personality and a very high degree of brand awareness that commands a premium even in the resale market. The Custom Vehicle Operation (CVO) can be further be strengthened by increasing vertical shaped markets to the current price and engine range simply by re-directing the focus from being a single segment concentration whereby "through concentrated marketing, the firm gains a strong knowledge of the segment's needs and achieves a strong market presence" 13, Harley can upgrade the program to be a selective specialization where "a firm selects a number of segments, each objectively attractive and appropriate. There may be little or no synergy between the segments, but each promises to be a money maker" 14, there can be many segments vying for the same product rather than multiple players within a single segment and also by introducing differentiated marketing based on product attributes. Harley's 2005 model-year-line-up includes 32 models of touring and custom heavy weight motorcycles, a strategy that focuses mainly on increased prices based on increased demand created by limited

Analysis Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Analysis - Article Example Physicians opted to use early screening in identifying yellow flags and develop intervention guidelines as well as achieve secondary preclusion. Although various psychological factors have been found to be support prognosis of yellow flags, questions still linger as to which strategies work best either individually or in combination and to what extent yellow flags influence outcomes in patients with acute pain. Although previous research indicate that targeting yellow flags especially when they are high significantly affect the obtainment of positive results than providing ominous interventions. The authors conduct this research with the aim of unraveling the mystery surrounding the yellow flags and formulate concrete and solid conclusion that will enhance the operations in the health care industry and embolden management of yellow flags and back pain (Gray et al., 2011). Apparently, various psychosocial factors including personal and work allied factors play a significant role in delaying return to work and continuation of symptoms in people with back pain. Commonly, people complain of excruciating back pain that makes them wince with the discomposure but apparently, they can engage in many activities that can ostensibly be considered light. When handling such persons, physicians wonder as to whether the pain is musculoskeletal or has merely been caused by psychological factors. As part of back pain management, it is, therefore, imperative that physiotherapists have the enthusiasm and abilities to evaluate and manage psychosocial issues. The authors’ main intentions were to methodically assess and encapsulate literature on the skills and perceptions that physiotherapists have when gauging and treating Yellow and Blue Flags in patients who experience back pain that often causes them discomfiture. The authors candidly concentrate on the narrowed

What do you stand for Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

What do you stand for - Essay Example The first line of action through which people utilize their freedom is by carrying out acts which enable them to satisfy their biological needs. The satisfaction of these needs creates an environment for us to express other freedoms. On a higher level, we can use a phenomenological freedom to pursue inquiry, and theoretical freedom to determine the logical consistency of the answers we obtain. From a scientific viewpoint, reliable predictions enable people to verify their answers in relation to perceptible experiences such as witnessed events and beauty. Finally, on the sociological level, the answers we obtain lead to changes in behavior that precipitate emotional growth, ultimately leading to psychological maturity. We are partly a product of where we are raised, and the experiences we encounter in life. It is parents and the immediate community who instill the norms and values that define a child’s behavior as he grows up. However, experiences fundamentally alter the beliefs and perceptions and, therefore, influence a person’s life view. Therefore, childhood background determines who we become, but experiences also play a part in this role. In addition, sometimes experiences may be so psychologically and emotionally moving that they override the background factors that determine a person’s nature. Therefore, it is possible for a person’s nature to change significantly when they are already physically, emotionally, and psychologically mature. This might have happened to John Wideman, and; therefore, he probably was not an anomaly. The American Dream is accessible to all legal citizens of the United States. Firstly; this is because of freedom the constitution bestows upon each and every citizen. The freedom of expression, freedom of religious and political beliefs, and freedom to undertake any action permissible under the law paves the way for any individual, be they poor, uneducated, mentally challenged, or physically disabled, to pursue

Relationship between Soul and Body Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Relationship between Soul and Body - Assignment Example People comprehend that Buddha was very much inclined by the Upanishads and in peoples view the cause that Buddha went from self to meaninglessness was that the trend with the education of personality was. The spirit of Chariot The king suggested that Nagasena are all not the Skandhas put together. He went ahead and explained that nothing was to be found outside the five Skandhas that are known as the Nagasena (Jacobsen, Pg 56). He explained that the Nagesena is an empty sound and it is a falsehood that people believe that their respect has spoken. The king answered that the parts were not the chariot and not anything outside them was the chariot. What are the differences between minds and bodies which Descartes lines out? The actual difference of mind and body supported on their varied natures is the basis of the prominent mind-body trouble: how can these two matters with exceptionally dissimilar natures causally interrelate to provide growth to a human being able of having deliberat e bodily movements and sensations? Their worries occur from the assertion at the spirit of the actual difference disagreement that mind and body are exceptionally dissimilar or opposite things (Jacobsen, Pg 72). What problems does Philonous lead Hylas into concerning the way substance stands under or supports accidents? What does Hylas conclude? Philonous suggest that thing that causes accidents are a thing that people know very well. Their color, shape, and size are factors that are familiar to individuals. What is surprising is that these things cannot have meaning when they are alone, thus they cannot cause accidents. There must be a unifying factor for these things to have meaning thus cause accidents. Hylas concludes that without this a common factor, these items do not have meaning and they cannot cause accidents. What problems does Philonous point out about Hylas view of objects existing when no one perceives them? Philonous suggests that Hylas takes looks things as single ob jects that is why he has a problem in getting meaning of the main picture. He does not put things together for them to have meaning in order to get the correct idea (Jacobsen, Pg 76). For instance, he does not understand that accidents only occur when some factors are put together. There must be a unifying factor for these substances to be incorporated for an accident to occur. For Hume, an impression is some experience, like a sound, a color, a smell, pain or pleasure, etc. The idea of self describes the necessary traits that make one individual different from all others. There have been numerous methods to centralize these traits. The self is the thought of a combined being that is the basis of awareness (Jacobsen, Pg 85). Furthermore, this self is the means in charge of the opinions and events of a person to which they are credited. It is an essence, which therefore tolerates through time; consequently, the opinions and events at dissimilar instances may relate to the same person ality. How does Ryle think Descartes gave rise to the category mistake involving the mind?  

Advanced Computer Integrated Manufacturing Essay

Advanced Computer Integrated Manufacturing - Essay Example CIM is also known as integrated computer aided manufacturing.3. Applications software and hardware, including material planning and control, quality systems, inspection and vision, computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing, and computer aided process planning/computer-aided engineering ."Another scholar described CIM as an "integration tool which uses information and automation hardware and software for production control and management".A different perspective of CIM is that it is a "management technology that makes feasible the fully-automated factory-of-the-future".GT is a manufacturing philosophy in which the parts having similarities are grouped together to achieve higher level of integration between the design and manufacturing functions of a firm.The aim is to reduce work and improve performance by reducing lead times.GT emphasizes the principle that many problems are similar to each other and by grouping similar problems together; we can find a single solution to a s et of problems. The group of similar problems is known as part family and the group of machineries used to process an individual part family is known as machine cell. This type of manufacturing in which a part family is produced by a machine cell is known as 'Cellular Manufacturing'. Group Technology can: Enable Cellular Manufacturing Reduce Engineering Cost Accelerate Product Development Improve Costing Accuracy Simplify Process Planning Reduce Tooling Cost Simplify Purchasing Help With Value Stream Mapping BENEFITS OF GT GT benefits manufacturing in many ways. It reduces the number and variety of parts. Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) is an important tool for this. It uses the coded similarities to plan consistently, standardize and accurately estimate costs. It then assigns the part to a GT manufacturing cell. It also reduces throughput time and Work-In-Process. They simplify schedules, reduce transportation and ease supervision. Some of the more dramatic and tangible savings come from improved setups and tooling cost. Setup time reductions bring smaller lot sizes and smaller queues which mean faster throughput, shorter lead times and decreased inventory. Moreover, GT sometimes eliminates the need for expensive NC equipment. Combined with NC, GT simplifies programming, fixturing and tooling. FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM (FMS) "A system that consists of numerous programmable machine tools connected by an automated material handling system" (Russell). FMS has following

Relationship between Soul and Body Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Relationship between Soul and Body - Assignment Example People comprehend that Buddha was very much inclined by the Upanishads and in peoples view the cause that Buddha went from self to meaninglessness was that the trend with the education of personality was. The spirit of Chariot The king suggested that Nagasena are all not the Skandhas put together. He went ahead and explained that nothing was to be found outside the five Skandhas that are known as the Nagasena (Jacobsen, Pg 56). He explained that the Nagesena is an empty sound and it is a falsehood that people believe that their respect has spoken. The king answered that the parts were not the chariot and not anything outside them was the chariot. What are the differences between minds and bodies which Descartes lines out? The actual difference of mind and body supported on their varied natures is the basis of the prominent mind-body trouble: how can these two matters with exceptionally dissimilar natures causally interrelate to provide growth to a human being able of having deliberat e bodily movements and sensations? Their worries occur from the assertion at the spirit of the actual difference disagreement that mind and body are exceptionally dissimilar or opposite things (Jacobsen, Pg 72). What problems does Philonous lead Hylas into concerning the way substance stands under or supports accidents? What does Hylas conclude? Philonous suggest that thing that causes accidents are a thing that people know very well. Their color, shape, and size are factors that are familiar to individuals. What is surprising is that these things cannot have meaning when they are alone, thus they cannot cause accidents. There must be a unifying factor for these things to have meaning thus cause accidents. Hylas concludes that without this a common factor, these items do not have meaning and they cannot cause accidents. What problems does Philonous point out about Hylas view of objects existing when no one perceives them? Philonous suggests that Hylas takes looks things as single ob jects that is why he has a problem in getting meaning of the main picture. He does not put things together for them to have meaning in order to get the correct idea (Jacobsen, Pg 76). For instance, he does not understand that accidents only occur when some factors are put together. There must be a unifying factor for these substances to be incorporated for an accident to occur. For Hume, an impression is some experience, like a sound, a color, a smell, pain or pleasure, etc. The idea of self describes the necessary traits that make one individual different from all others. There have been numerous methods to centralize these traits. The self is the thought of a combined being that is the basis of awareness (Jacobsen, Pg 85). Furthermore, this self is the means in charge of the opinions and events of a person to which they are credited. It is an essence, which therefore tolerates through time; consequently, the opinions and events at dissimilar instances may relate to the same person ality. How does Ryle think Descartes gave rise to the category mistake involving the mind?  

TORTS CD 2 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

TORTS CD 2 - Research Paper Example Later on the information of 2 witnesses, police started investigating and tracking the movement of Mr. Holden. According to the 1st witness said that Holden not ever finished selling marijuana later on his before reported arrest, and that he was then dealing both oxycodone and marijuana. The witness furnished extra information about Mr. Holden (Steele, 2012). According to another witness Mr. Holden kept on dealing marijuana, many pounds at particular time period. He further informed the task force about Mr. Holden that he recently dealt marijuana from his home. Later on task force track every movement of Mr. Holden for twenty days or more through the GPS system. In this case the superior court ruled the decision of lower court and passed a decision that the usage of GPS for tracking the movement of people without any warrant is against the right of privacy of people. Anonymous (2011). Delaware Court Rules Against GPS Motorist Tracking.  The Truths About Car. Retrieved  from

Trusts and Pensions Essay Example for Free

Trusts and Pensions Essay Introduction After the World War II, western European governments had taken several measures to provide better working conditions and job security to their citizens. Some of such policies aimed to provide guaranteed minimum income to people, some policies guarantee old age benefits and social security insurance, while still some policies aimed to provide housing, healthcare etc. facilities to lower income people (Gough, 1987).   Ã‚   These policies worked smoothly till the late 1970’s but from the last two decades, when Western European states tried to maintain their economies according to the international competition (Rhodes, 1996); they had come to the conclusion that these welfare policies are responsible for slower economic growth and rising rate of unemployment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The economy and the social cohesion of EU have the threats of steadily growing high unemployment. They now have set their target to raise the employment and the participation ratio in European labor market. But the most fatal problem is that, it will definitely take several years to solve. Similarly aging labor force is also one of the major dilemmas of European Union labor market.   It has been estimated that only 50% of the citizens under the age bracket of 55 to 64 years are in work in developing countries as compared to 75% of 25 to 54 years old and this percentage shrinks further in EU countries, i.e. only 39% (Young, 2002).   These figures depicted a serious dilemma because if these would not be improved then by 2050 EU would suffer a 6% decrease in population and sharp increase in pensions and health spending which will be escalated from current 15% of GDP to an estimated 22% (EU must reform labor markets to reduce unemployment). What is pension? An advantage, generally in terms of money, remunerated recurrently to retired workers or their dependents by private companies and government organizations (Ball, 2002). An alluring element to worker reparation packages are annuities. Companies are not obligated to set up pension rewards but do so to fascinate experienced workers (Armstrong, 2002). A particular figure of money has to pay into an annuity account which set up by the company. The company appoints a reliable committee, for the good management of the fund, which is known as â€Å"trustee† (Scrimshaw, 2001). It is their responsibility to spend the fund in different pecuniary schemes and stock market to flourish the fund on behalf of the company. The amount in this account can be raise due to the investments (Clark Whiteside, 2003). The amount credited into this account is non taxable to the company and to worker up to the time of retirement (INCOMES DATA SERVICES, 2002). At the time of retirement worker can get money that continues up to a certain period or can get in one go, on which he/she has to pay some tax. The worker may obtain more money than the company has just because of his / her long life. In case, if worker expires prior to complete payment of his / her pension, the dependants will receive the residue of annuity. A person can get more than one pension as he / she have served in several organizations (Esping-Andersen, 1999). About United Kingdom’s retirement funds: â€Å"1670s Royal Navy introduced first systematized pension scheme 1908 introduced first general old age pension paying a non-contributory amount of between 10p and 25p a week, from age 70, on a means-tested basis from January 1 1909 Pensions Day. This was introduced during the Liberal government of David Lloyd-George. Sir William Beveridge, father of the welfare state, was an adviser (Esping-Andersen, 1990). 1921 – To comply with some situations of pension schemes a tax deduction permitted by approving Finance Act. 1925 – For those who receive  £250 per annum and for physical workers, a contributory State system has been approved as Contributory Pensions Act. According to this Act the pension was 50p per week at the age of 65.   1942 – A report was presented by Sir William Beveridge as Social Insurance and Allied Services with some proposals of state welfare. 1946 – Before 1946 the pensions were  £1.30 for a single person and  £2.10 for a married couple, started after the age of 65 years, in case of men and after the age of 60 in case of women. In 1946 UK government had introduced contributory pensions for all the workers 1947 the finance Act of 1947 had curtailed the maximum amount of tax relief on pensions 1959 Government has introduced a new pension scheme, which was called the Graduated Pension. It includes the people between the income bracket of  £9 to  £15 per week (Able Smith Townsend, 1961) 1975 Yet another pension Act, which was introduced in 1978, the Social Security Pensions Act was presented and it finally replaced the graduated pensions scheme. 1995 the Pensions Act of 1995 had set up new ideas and schemes for compensation and had changed the previous compensation method (Pierson, 1996) 1999 A new amendment in Pensions Act was introduced which guaranteed some minimum income to the needy pensioners. This was known as Minimum Income Guarantee (MIG) 2001 – A new pension scheme, especially tailored for low earning males and female workers was introduced, which was called stakeholder pensions 2002 State Second Pension Scheme was introduced which replaced Serps 2003 Introduction of the Pension Credit, which will bring half a million pensioners into means-testing†. (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2488513.stm)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Now recognition of requirements has been clear by most of the countries for persons to get further of a function in supplying their pension profit.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The scheme of retirement on the basis of stipulation on occurrence between transfers of profit experiences calamity due to long life escalation. Existence of a very small number of employees sustaining every retired worker can be known by â€Å"fresh arithmetic† as functioning people decreasing as long-lived-ness perdurable increasing (Hawksworth, 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The tendency is ready to persist. The transfer of pension to self-supporting is a resolution, by which the management constructs the organizational and pecuniary foundation to facilitate and convince workers to protect and spend possessions for their personal pension (Brooks, Regan Robinson, 2002)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The management proposal to prepare the new annuity scheme and to persuade the improvement of a formation for annuity administered by other institutions is a remarkable prototype of this (Kelly, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This denotes actual prescience. Almost 16.3 per cent of inhabitants of the world produce by India and its old age citizens are, alone, 12.5 per cent of the world’s old age public. The incessant decease and birth ratio by additional public ingenuity and fitness will transform the comparatively present young generation of India which makes 70 million public above 60 years of age and less than 10 per cent out of them could hardly have pension. Rest of 90 per cent depends on their jobs or support by family. The fact, divulge through a joint research   by the Pension Fund Regulatory and Development and Asian Development Bank, that after the retirement 71 per cent people depends on their family in bucolic areas and 59 per cent in metropolitan areas (Jackman, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The central idea of restructuring of retirement income articulate by the Old Age Social and Income Committee i.e. â€Å"economic security during old age should necessarily result from sustained preparation through life-long contributions† and that â€Å"the government should step in only in case of those who do not have the sufficient incomes to save for old age† (Allen, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The preface of the described input, completely subsidized, personal retirement account annuities, along with the finance administration of these designated to confidential finance supervisors suggested by the Old Age Social and Income Committee in the subsequent statement.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To raise the retirement income coverage, minimize the function of the state as retirement fund supplier and lessen the non subsidized annuity legal responsibility is the main objective to restructure any retirement fund.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The preface of the latest annuity scheme would capture the raise in the unsupported annuity legal responsibility of the government workers retirement fund by including the new government workers joining workforce from January 1, 2004; minimize the function of the government in sustaining the other untenable significant advantage of retirement fund legal responsibility, which would eventually drop on the government; grant worldwide access to public, facilitate individuals who do not have access to any means of transportation to construct the possessions for old-age benefits, and once the latest scheme reconciled, the government could have better resources to believe intensification the methods tested levy-funding retirement fund for persons who do not have sufficient earnings to self-supporting their old-age benefits.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As these seem individual parts of the scheme, one has to take emphasizing the importance of the whole view to look how the apparently individual parts of the scheme are, in fact, mutually dependent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When alter in the retirement fund scheme is visualized there are always trepidation. The primary consternation is regarding the modification in retirement fund plan of government workers (TUC, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This has to be sighted in the outline of the untenably of the present defined benefit retirement fund. As stated by to the World Bank, for the Central government, the retirement fund proposal articulated as a share of GDP twice among 1995 and 2000.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The World Bank statement also specify that outlays on annuity for government workers are expected to develop quicker at the state level where service further than twice in three decades, leveling off just lately, and that the upcoming development in the retirement fund law would mirror this (Wallis, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The shift to define contribution retirement fund for new workers is a step to alleviate this. The transition can be successfully level by professional finance administration and the controlling of the collected retirement fund on a constant basis (Pickering, 2002). In April 2005 an annuity supervisory body launched for trade which is formed by the 2004 Pensions Act. The superior importance on engaging genuine threat to affiliates’ advantages is obvious that the latest restrict method cause to feel itself in the pension realm as its primary semi annual functions under control by the body. To get the exact scenario of the present pension reform, the body compiled and tested the system information on an extensive array; the body is emergent and printing operation rules, aid to explicate the errands of entrusted managers and supervisors under the recent Act; and the body is efficiently functioning to minimize the threats. The mismanagement, swindle and mis-commitment are the major threats tried by the companies, and the body has the workforce to face them. The under financing, is still, the major lone threat dealing with all proposals presenting described advantages. The previous least subsidy requirement has not offered enough shelter against this threat and the truth is that most of the DB systems are presently low subsidized is not in argument. Assessing the extent of scheme shortfall is not a better solution, yet, as a collection of variables has to be measured – such as upcoming investment income, no body knows that when he / she will dies. Whichever procedure is applied, the numbers provide reason for trepidation. It has been anticipated, for instance, that the total scheme deficits of the FTSE 350 companies amount to  £72bn. The new legislation, coming into force at the end of 2005, requires schemes and sponsoring employers to confront and tackle this issue (Whiteside, 2003). Legal Requirements According to the latest ‘scheme specific’ financing administration, all proposals presenting described advantages will have to make a careful evaluation of their legal responsibilities, ascertain the measure of any financing deficit and suitable measurements will have to take to eradicate it. To measure the proposal’s legal responsibilities is the primary action in this regards is mandatory. There are no predefined rules to measure the responsibility, but, it is expected that all proposals should be evaluated as shortfall arise either due to the completion of the scheme and their accumulated rates. The entrusted management will calculate that how much financing is required to offer for the committed pension profits to pensioner as the scheme gets mature. The entrusted administration is also responsible to describe the sequential steps should be taken through a declaration of financing rules and work out the payment plan of contributions. And they also liable to arrange these papers and make sure that all supporting companies are harmonized with the contents.   A practical revival strategy should be taken place if resources are not enough, as many proposals are in unavoidable situation, due to the low financing. It should be predefined that how much financing is required and when. The recovery plan must contain an attested strategy by a statistician as further aid entails to attain the requisite level of financing. It is mandatory that the complete statistical assessment should be done in three to four years. And this assessment must contain all the required reports to facilitate the entrusted management to judge that how much development is done and how efficient. The translucency is also required for latest financing rule as further aspect. The copies of different reports achieved by the complete statistical assessment should be given to all members. And a yearly report should be distributed to all associates and recipients of benefit, which describes the development and efficiency status of any proposal. Transforming functions There are different roles which facing confronts due to the necessities of financing of the latest proposal. The prime resolutions should be passed by the entrusted managers (Storper Salais, 1997). The statistician is liable to give guidance to help them pass the resolutions. Whereas, the companies have no authority to intervene the entrusted managers’ role, but should, in several situations, bargain to locate a safe path to lead. To eradicate the shortfalls and to meet the requirements of financing entrusted managers are more influential than companies (Ward, 2002). As the entrusted managers are not necessarily be an economist or financial expert, so it is essential to them that they have to get guidance and work with a statistician or financial expert as and when required. A statistician should be well in communication. Companies have to be more liberalize with entrusted managers regarding their pecuniary matters rather they were behaving in past (CIPD, 2002) Functioning with the Controller The Retirement fund Controller’s primary task in this zone will be to collect data vis-à  -vis present proposal financial support and the deed that proposal are taking to deal with their shortfalls. The task of accumulating and scrutinizing the yearly proposal incomes is running smoothly and the collection of data associated to financial support is continue as when and how much more support require. For instance, the presentation of an alternative arrangement to gain the funds back is mandatory by the entrusted managers, in a specific period of time. If they fail to fulfill the requirements of the contract they must inform the controller about it. Statistician or financial experts are also supposed to perform in the same way, in case, if they fail to attest the computations which are applied to achieve the precise financial support. The controllers are also interested to be notified if any task undone at companies end, in prolong period. Controller’s Authority When the statistician and entrusted managers are fail to complete their task according to the latest rules – in case, as the company unable to perform as per the contract – the controller has the right to interfere to drive the functions in a right direction. The controller can instruct about the computation to get the desired financial support, if required, or in case of a shortfall, guidance should be given by the controller, when or how to be eradicated. Controller can alter the upcoming accumulation of incomes or a new plan can be applied, when it seems to be impossible. However, the controller intends to use these powers sparingly and only as a last resort. Their focus will always be on identifying potential risks, and working with trustees, employers and advisers to develop solutions and, ultimately, to secure a prudent level of funding. When Controllers Can Interfere? Some particular situations can make the controllers to look into the matter personally. For example, unbelievable information, reports regarding financial support as mentioned above, business reformation and other controllers report. To settle down the situation, reckon when and how to interfere into the matter, controller recommends the utilization of assure timely events. By the help, of different kind of events method, controller visualizes the working. In the first event, entrusted managers recognized the aim of desired financial support. Generally discussion, if controllers realize this has been place too low, controller may need to see at the proposal narrowly, while controller will obtain further issues into account – in case, it may be satisfactory for a powerful company to define their target at a lesser point than a feeble company. The other kind of event associated to the new strategy. When the period is more than a decade, for instance, or if it suggested an impractical point of assist in the upcoming, controller may need to converse it in more detail. In general terms, then, controller are expected to see narrowly at proposals with less desire financial support and even more regain strategy, while controller will obtain a realistic and profitably responsive method. The defined levels of the timely event situations, and the kind of interference that could effect, are concerns that we wish to converse truthfully with the business. A draw up paper defined how we propose to apply our authority is obtainable for free discussion During the contribution of public administration expert, association want to place annuity and retirement issues as part of complete recompense and service policies, sustaining the accomplishment of organizational objective by encountering the requirements of their present and upcoming workers. This points out that these policies need to be customized to the situation of each business. There emerge to be three essential parts, and it is in these three zones that public administration expert can and is earning a main payment: There is an obligation for obvious and converse retirement fund and recompense strategy objective, level to the requirements of the business and its employees. Public administration expert require cultivating their panel and line associates on the context for and satisfied of these objective. Suitable retirement fund preparations can support a fit mental agreement, and aid a company succeeds in the rising ‘war’ for trained workforce and ability. With a getting old labor force, extra expandable method to annuity and retirement are turn into a essential part of useful resourcing policies. Business requires planning and put into practice suitable system to provide these policies. Suppleness and option in terms seem to be significant mechanism of these plans according to the requirements of further varied workers. We are ever more noticing organizations working more than one annuity plans and/or mix plans, and proffering workers retirement fund selections – all as element of inclusive supple benefits and complete recompense programs. Public administration expert are performing an important function in cultivating administrator and workers, facilitate them to take on private liability and make well-versed options as to the manner they desire to function and shift into retirement, with the suitable retirement fund provision to attain this. Price for Companies and Workers In all the investigation of tendency and foretells in work-related annuity provision, the related concerns of rising plan expenditure and governmental and bookkeeping necessities summit the lists of causes for transform. As PWC’s assessment of European pensions remarks, the option for national and work-related plans in all countries â€Å"is stark: higher taxes and contributions, or less generous pensions.† (Thompson, 2002). Companies expenditure increasing The chief financial officer of British Airways described on the day that the airline reported an annual loss of  £200 million that, ‘the change to a defined contribution pension for future staff is a necessary response to the competitive environment in which BA operates’. Correspondingly Geoff Pearson of Sainsbury’s informed public administration that the untenable expense of servicing their concluding salary scheme show the way to its closure to new candidate in April 2002 (CIPD, 2002). To protect the defined echelon of advantage and retirement fund the company tolerates all the threat of administration annuity investments according to the defined benefit. The workers of an engineering company â€Å"Pearson† have discovered that the complete safe business is not available on this earth. The wrapping up of their plan with a considerable shortfall could perceive them mislay up to half of the worth of their annuity ‘assurance’. The risk management even mendacity with the employer and just normally notified and erudite experts. According to the defined contribution plans, the worker has to take all the threats. Spend too conventionally and the growth of your own finance is very low. You have to face the fear of losing a considerable sum of your investment, when you spend your funds in a risky business. As the profit of your spending is below average, you either need to raise your payments or eventually get a low annuity, a truth that most of us realize when we gets the yearly statement of annuity, the plans purchase by our funds this year will be presently disturbing about (Merrick, 2001). When the stock market was at its peak, there is a better chance for intrepid workers that they can earn good profit in a defined contribution plan, where they reserve the surplus profits, rather than in a defined benefit scheme, where additional profit were reserved as a excess by the employer and might be utilized to support contribution holidays (Dore, 2000). That is the main reason of general shift to defined contribution plans in the 1990s allured slight interest and disagreement. As the present market state of affairs is totally change. Summary of Present Scenario The secure, trustworthy, if you are not capable to understand, comfort-blanket annuity atmosphere that persist for full-time, white-collar workers in numerous great corporations in the post-war years is well and truly over (Watson, 2001). We can quarrel on the reasons and whether under the new accounting law FRS 17 is just a cover up for primitive recompense- and financial prudence, but we are not interested to bring the atmosphere back into going to be able to wish that environment back into fortitude. Annuities have and are transforming. We may make the rules simpler, but we can not disregard the reality that Maxwell and the mis-selling scandals happened. We cannot retain the getting old people, any more than we can push our baby-boomer principles of frugality, faithfulness and tardy enjoyment onto the more globally minded, self-assured, but short-termist and doubtful, approaches and inspiration of Generation Y.   References   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Able Smith, B. Townsend, P. (1961). The Poor and the Poorest. London, Bell.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Allen, A. (2002) Silver lining,   People Management. Vol 8, No 17, 29 August   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Armstrong, M. (2002) Employee reward. 3rd ed. London, CIPD.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ball, S. (2002) Pensions compulsion and compulsory contributions, Employee Benefits. July.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Brooks, R. Regan, S, Robinson, P. (2002) A new contract for retirement. London, IPPR.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   CIPD (2002) Reward management: survey report. London, CIPD.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   CIPD (2002) Perspectives: HRH: a work audit. London, CIPD.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Clark, G.L. Whiteside, N. (2003), Pension Security in the 21st   Century, Oxford, OUP   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dore, R. (2000). Stock Market Capitalism: Welfare Capitalism. Japan and Germany Versus the Anglo-Saxons. Oxford, OUP.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Princeton, NJ / Oxford, Princeton University Press/ Polity Press.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Esping-Andersen, G. (1999). Social Foundations of Post-Industrial Economies. Oxford, OUP.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   EU must reform labor markets to reduce unemployment, Management- Issues. http://www.management-issues.com/display_page.asp?section=researchid=1190# Retrieved December 5, 2006   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Gough, I., (1987), Welfare State, The New Palgrave, A Dictionary of Economics, vol. 4, London: Macmillan.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hawksworth, J. et al. (2000) The European pensions and savings revolution. London, PriceWaterhouseCoopers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jackman, R. (2002) The global retirement crisis. Washington DC, Centre for Strategic and International Studies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   INCOMES DATA SERVICES (2002) Pensions in practice 2002/3. London, IDS.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kelly, R. (2002) A better choice of pension, Financial Times.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Merrick, N. (2001) Benefits in the limelight, Employee Benefits, April.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pickering, A. (2002) A simple way to better pensions, Norwich, Stationery Office.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pierson, P. (1996). A historical institutionalist analysis, Comparative Political Studies, 29, 2.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Rhodes, M. (1996), A New Social Contract? Globalisation and West Welfare States, European University Institute, EUI Working Paper RSC No. 96/43.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Scrimshaw, A. (2001) Pensions. London, CIPD.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Storper, M. Salais R. (1997). Worlds of Production: The Action Frameworks of the Economy, Cambridge, MA, Harvard.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thompson, P. (2002), Total reward. London, CIPD.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   TUC. (2002) Prospects for pensions. London, TUC, June.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Wallis, S. (2002) Annuity rip-offs, Observer. 29 August.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ward, S. (2002) Planning your pension. London, TUC/Kogan Page.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Watson Wyatt. (2001)   Playing to win: strategic rewards in the war for talent. London, Watson Wyatt.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Whiteside, N., (2003), Historical perspectives on the politics of pension reform in Clark and Whiteside Pension Security in the 21st   Century, Oxford, OUP   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Young, G.   (2002) The implications of an ageing population for the UK economy. London, Bank of England.

Land Resources Land As A Resource Environmental Sciences Essay

Land Resources Land As A Resource Environmental Sciences Essay Land or soil is one of the natural bases for human life and social development. Soils are defined and characterized on the basis of their morphological profiles because the assemblage of obvious physical features represented by these units are often related to the less obvious features of their chemical composition, chemical properties, and fertility. Men have tilled the soil and irrigated and drained it for at least six millennia. This is basic to civilization. Systematic scientific study of agriculture began in the first half of the nineteenth century, along with physical studies of the soil. In its natural state, the soil is normally a three-component porous medium consisting of solid soil particles, water, and air. Much of the water involved in the hydrologic cycle is located in soil between the time of its arrival as rain at the soil surface and that of its return to the atmosphere. The processes of water movement in soil play a central part in the scientific study of the terrestrial sector of the hydrologic cycle and in the problems of dry-land and irrigated agriculture, of plant ecology, and of soil biology. These determine the transport of materials in solution such as natural salts, fertilizers, and urban and industrial wastes through the soil. Properties such as infiltration, drainage, and retention of water in the soil layers; extraction of water by plant roots; and the evaporation of water from the soil are also important. The solid phase of the soil has mineral and organic matter, which is usually highly colloidal, seldom exceeds 5-10% by weight of soil. In an agricultural context, the main interest in soil structure is in terms of soil tilth, which is related to the ability of aggregates to maintain their integrity when the soil is irrigated, tilled, or otherwise worked so that water retention and drainage and aeration are kept at favorable levels. As soil is a complex mixture of many components there is usually little value in determining the amount of a chemical element present without any indication of the fraction of the soil in which it occurs and its form of combination. Indeed, fractions that comprise only a small proportion of the total soil mass are often very important in determining its behavior. The following is a convenient classification of soil fractions: The Organic Fraction, The Mineral Fraction, Soluble in water: Simple inorganic ions, Soluble in dilute acids: Carbonates, Insoluble in dilute acids. Primary minerals mainly occur in sand and silt fractions; secondary minerals usually occur in the clay fraction ( Organic Fraction Organic materials are added to soils as dead plant and animal remains. They are decomposed by the microflora and microfauna to form humus, an amorphous material distinct from undecomposed litter. Well-humified organic matter contains about 58 % carbon, so the amount of the soil organic fraction is usually specified by determining the organic carbon content and multiplying it by 1.73. Organic contents range from zero in some mineral subsoils, through 1 to 10 % in arable topsoils, to nearly 100% (of the dry weight) in some peat and muck soils. The amounts in surface soils depend on the balance between accumulation and decomposition, and these processes in turn are influenced by temperature and moisture content. Apart from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the organic fraction contains nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. The proportions of these elements are often expressed as ratios compared to nitrogen taken as 10, and typical values are C:N = 80-150:10, S:N = 1.2-1.5:10, and P:N = 0.2-3.0:10. Metals such as aluminum, iron, manganese, and copper are also found in small amounts in humic complexes. The organic compounds in humus are very different. The main portion appears to consist of polymers, some of which are formed by random condensation of phenols, amino acids, and other related microbial degradation products. A large number of compounds have been isolated from humus extracts, but many of these must be artifacts. Of particular interest, apart from the polyphenols, are amino acids (implying that humus contains protein), sugars (indicating carbohydrate fractions), and amino sugars. The sulfur seems to be part of the main humus fraction, probably as sulfur-containing amino acids and organic sulphates. In some soils, much of the organic phosphorus is present as inositol polyphosphates, which appear not to be an integral part of the humus. Water-soluble Components The soluble-salt content of most soils is low so that the soil solution typically contains between 5 and 25 mmol/L of calcium and magnesium salts, mainly as nitrate. In saline soils, however, the salt content is of the order of 100 mmol/L, and although still less than 1% of the soil mass, the soluble salts dominate the behavior of the soil and include also sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl-), bicarbonate (HCO3-), and sulphate (SO4) ions. The salt content is normally determined in a saturation extract prepared by wetting the soil until it is just saturated with water and filtering off the extract under reduced pressure. The filtrate may be analyzed chemically, but a rapid indication of the degree of salinity is given by measuring its electrical conductivity. Conductivity values above 4 milliSiemens (mS) indicate that crop production may be reduced by salt damage, while above 20 mS only salt-tolerant species can survive. The approximate conductivity at 25Â °C of a 100 mmol/L solution referred to above is 8-10 mS. The reaction of soil is one of its most important diagnostic parameters. It is given by a pH measurement on the saturation extract or on a suspension of soil in water or in a dilute electrolyte solution. Strongly acid soils may have pH values down to 3.5, and strongly alkaline soils as high as 9.5, but more typical pH values of soils range from 5 to 8. Carbonates In soils formed from limestone rocks or other carbonate-containing sediments, carbonates occur mainly as calcite (CaCO3) but sometimes also as dolomite [(Ca, Mg)CO3]. They are important in the buffer system that controls the pH and cation balance of soil, and also for their reactions with anions, particularly phosphate. In their reactions with anions, the particle size and surface area of the soil carbonates are more important than the amount. Amounts of soil carbonate are estimated from the carbon dioxide evolved when the soil is treated with dilute acid, the results being expressed as a percentage by weight of the soil. In a leaching environment, soil carbonate is gradually removed by solution in carbonated water [CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2] so that topsoils contain less carbonate than subsoils or the parent material. The leached carbonate may be concentrated by chemical precipitation at depth in the soil profile. Primary Minerals Soil analysis includes the separation and determination of sand, silt, and clay fractions by sieving and sedimentation. The mineral matter of soils is directly inherited from the parent material, although its composition is usually different depending on the age of the soil and the resistance of minerals to weathering. The minerals in the sand and silt fractions are mainly quartz and feldspars, plus a host of accessory minerals. Only the most resistant primary minerals remain in advanced stages of soil development, i.e., quartz (SiO2) as the major component, with smaller amounts of heavy metal oxides such as hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), and rutile (TiO2). Secondary Minerals The clay-sized ( Land Degradation Land degradation making the land unsuitable for habitat construction and agriculture has become a major problem in recent times. This has threatened the world food production as soil quality degradation results in severe reduction in crop yield. It is estimated that 15 percent of the worlds total land area has not maintained its quality due to a number of problems that include erosion, nutrient decline, salinization and physical compaction. The countries which are mainly dependent on agriculture as a national resource suffer more from the effects of land degradation. Some of the major soil degradation processes and the causes for them are given below. Loss of topsoil by erosion/surface wash. This results in a decrease in depth of the topsoil layer due to more or less uniform removal of soil material by run-off water. The possible causes are inappropriate land management especially in agriculture (insufficient soil cover, unobstructed flow of run-off water, deteriorating soil structure) leading to excessive surface run-off and sediment transport. Terrain deformation is an irregular displacement of soil material (by linear erosion or mass movement) causing clearly visible scars in the terrain. The possible causes are inappropriate land management in agriculture forestry or construction activities, allowing excessive amounts of run-off water to concentrate and flow unobstructed. Fertility decline and reduced organic matter content resulting in a net decrease of available nutrients and organic matter in the soil. This is likely to be due to imbalance between output (through harvesting, burning, leaching, etc.) and input (through manure/fertilizers, returned crop residues, flooding) of nutrients and organic matter. Soil contamination indicates the presence of an alien substance in the soil without significant negative effects and soil pollution signifies soil degradation as a consequence of location, concentration and adverse biological or toxic effects of a substance. The source of pollution may be waste dumps, spills, factory wasted, etc. The source can also be diffuse or airborne (atmospheric deposition of acidifying compounds and/or heavy metals. Eutrophication with the presence of an excess of certain soil nutrients, impairing plant growth. The possible causes are imbalanced application of organic and chemical fertilizer resulting in excess nitrogen, phosphorus; liming. Compaction resulting in deterioration of soil structure by trampling by cattle or the weight and/or frequent use of machinery. The possible causes are repeated use of heavy machinery, having a cumulative effect. Heavy grazing and overstocking may lead to compaction as well. Factors that influence compaction are ground pressure (by axle/wheel loads of the machinery used); frequency of the passage of heavy machinery; soil texture; soil moisture; climate. Sealing and crusting which is clogging of pores with fine soil material and development of a thin impervious layer at the soil surface obstructing the infiltration of rainwater. The possible causes are poor soil cover, allowing a maximum splash effect of raindrops; destruction of soil structure and low organic matter. Waterlogging that results from effects of human induced hydromorphism (i.e. excluding paddy fields). The possible causes are rising water table (e.g. due to construction of reservoirs/irrigation) and/or increased flooding caused by higher peak-flows. Lowering of the soil surface resulting from subsidence of organic soils, settling of soil. The possible causes are oxidation of peat and settling of soils in general due to lowering of the water table; solution of gypsum in the sub-soil (human-induced) or lowering of soil surface due to extraction of gas or water Loss of productive function which results from soil (land) being taken out of production for non-bio-productive activities, but not the eventual secondary degrading effects of these activities. The possible causes are urbanization and industrial activities; infrastructure; mining; quarrying, etc. Aridification, which is the decrease of average soil moisture content. The possible causes are lowering of groundwater tables for agricultural purposes or drinking water extraction; decreased soil cover and reduced organic matter content. Salinisation / alkalinization which is a net increase of the salt content of the (top)soil leading to a productivity decline. The possible causes are a distinction can be made between salinity problems due to intrusion of seawater (which may occur under all climate conditions) and inland salinisation, caused by improper irrigation methods and/or evaporation of saline groundwater. Dystrification, which is the lowering of soil pH through the process of mobilizing or increasing acidic compounds in the soil. Worldwide, almost 2,000Â  million hectares of land show at least minor signs of degradation, corresponding to approximately 1% of the ice-free surface. Around 300Â  million hectares of land surface are already seriously degraded. Soil degradation situation in India is shown in Fig. 2.10. Population growth and soil Population growth exerts enormous pressure on soils, and the soil degradation is due to additional migration and urbanization processes. The higher the rate of global population growth, the higher is the demand on the soil functions. There is already a growing disparity between growth-related demand and the availability of land. Many states are no longer capable of feeding their own populations with domestic agricultural products because they do not have enough land. Given the speed of population growth and the level of soil degradation already apparent, an increasing scarcity of soils available for meeting competing demands is expected. Two case studies of soil degradation 1. The Sahel Region The problems of soil degradation and desertification in the Sahel can be attributed to changes in nature as well as to socioeconomic causes. The nomadic groups in the Sahel are increasingly restricted in the mobility and flexibility that once provided them with a secure basis for ecological adaptation. Growing competition from other forms of land use, political measures and unclear or disadvantageous land-use rights led to their sedentarisation; they were pushed into more marginalized locations much less suitable for grazing livestock. The sensitive soils and ecosystems in the region are degraded as a result, mainly due to overgrazing. Subsistence farmers are similarly affected by displacement to marginal land that is unsuitable for farming. Greater mechanization without parallel soil protection measures (erosion protection, and suitable irrigation) has negative effects on the soils. Finally, cash crops (cotton, groundnuts) on fertile soils is not pursued in a sustainable fashion. These monocultures are farmed with the help of machines and pesticides, both of which can cause great problems. The Sahel also undergone tremendous social changes caused by internal and external conditions. Of importance is the general neglect of rural concerns and the orientation to agrarian export production through large-scale capital-intensive projects in the agricultural sector. External factors can be identified both in the global economic conditions (agricultural subsidies and/or export policies of the industrial nations, international debt) and in the practice of international development organizations, which in the past were not geared to the principle of sustainability, and which through their orientation to production technology gave too little consideration to the existing development potential. If the complex problems faced by the Sahel are to be solved, greater attention must be given to the socioeconomic causes and to organizational and financial decentralization. 2. The Leipzig-Halle-Bitterfeld region The soils in the Leipzig-Halle-Bitterfeld region are contaminated, in some cases alarmingly, by depositions of airborne pollutants through deliberate depositing of inorganic and organic substances. A prime cause of this contamination was the concentration of chemical industries, mining and energy production, all of which used outdated production methods. Since the turn of the century, there have been five brown coal mining fields, and large-scale chemical plants developed in Bitterfeld (paints and dyes), Leuna (methanol, nitrogen) and Buna (synthetic rubber). For economically and environmentally sound development of the region, soil remediation and the removal of contaminated soil are a matter of urgency, which requires considerable support from the state or from outside the region. Fig. 2.10. Soil degradation in India Landslide In a landslide, masses of rock, earth, or debris move down a slope. Landslides may be small or large, slow or rapid. They are activated by: storms, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, fires, alternate freezing or thawing, and steepening of slopes by erosion or human modification. Debris and mudflows are rivers of rock, earth, and other debris saturated with water. They develop when water rapidly accumulates in the ground, during heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt, changing the earth into a flowing river of mud or slurry. They can flow rapidly, striking with little or no warning at avalanche speeds. They can travel several miles from their source, growing in size as they pick up trees, boulders, and other materials. Landslide problems can be caused by land mismanagement, particularly in mountain, canyon, and coastal regions. In areas burned by forest and brush fires, a lower threshold of precipitation may initiate landslides. Land-use zoning, professional inspections, and proper design can minimize many landslide, mudflow, and debris flow problems. Protection from a landslide or debris flow (a) Guidelines for the period following a landslide: Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides. Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information. Watch for flooding, which may occur after a landslide or debris flow. Floods sometimes follow landslides and debris flows because they may both be started by the same event. Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct slide area. Ask for rescuers and give them correct locations. Help a neighbor who may require special assistance infants, elderly people, and people with disabilities. Elderly people and people with disabilities may require additional assistance. People who care for them or who have large families may need additional assistance in emergency situations. Inform appropriate authorities about damaged roadways, railways, electricity lines and other utilities. Reporting potential hazards will get the utilities turned off as quickly as possible, preventing further damage. Check building foundation, chimney, and surrounding land for damage. Damage to foundations, chimneys, or surrounding land may help assess the safety of the area. Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground cover can lead to flash flooding and additional landslides in the near future. Seek advice from a geotechnical expert for evaluating landslide hazards or designing corrective techniques to reduce landslide risk. A professional will be able to advise you of the best ways to prevent or reduce landslide risk, without creating further hazard. (b) During a Landslide or Debris Flow What one should do if a landslide or debris flow occurs: Stay alert and awake. Many debris-flow fatalities occur when people are sleeping. Listen to radio or television for warnings of intense rainfall. Be aware that intense, short bursts of rain may be particularly dangerous, especially after longer periods of heavy rainfall and damp weather. If you are in areas susceptible to landslides and debris flows, consider leaving if it is safe to do so. Remember that driving during an intense storm can be hazardous. If you remain at home, move to a second story if possible. Staying out of the path of a landslide or debris flow saves lives. Listen for any unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together. A trickle of flowing or falling mud or debris may precede larger landslides. Moving debris can flow quickly and sometimes without warning. If one is near a stream or channel, he should be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in water flow and for a change from clear to muddy water. Such changes may indicate landslide activity upstream, so be prepared to move quickly. Dont delay! Save yourself, not your belongings. Be especially alert when driving. Embankments along roadsides are particularly susceptible to landslides. Watch the road for collapsed pavement, mud, fallen rocks, and other indications of possible debris flows. (c) What to do in case of Imminent Landslide Danger Contact your local fire, police, or public works department. Local officials are the best persons able to assess potential danger. Inform affected neighbors. Your neighbors may not be aware of potential hazards. Advising them of a potential threat may help save lives. Help neighbors who may need assistance to evacuate. Evacuate. Getting out of the path of a landslide or debris flow is your best protection. Curl into a tight ball and protect your head if escape is not possible. (d) Before a Landslide or Debris Flow Protect yourself from the effects of a landslide or debris flow: Do not build near steep slopes, close to mountain edges, near drainage ways, or natural erosion valleys. Get a ground assessment of your property. Contact local officials, geological surveys or departments of natural resources, and university departments of geology. Landslides occur where they have before, and in identifiable hazard locations. Ask for information on landslides in your area, specific information on areas vulnerable to landslides, and request a professional referral for a very detailed site analysis of your property, and corrective measures you can take, if necessary. If you are at risk from a landslide talk to your insurance agent. Debris flow may be covered by flood insurance policies. Minimize home hazards Have flexible pipe fittings installed to avoid gas or water leaks, as flexible fittings are more resistant to breakage (only the Gas Company or professionals should install gas fittings). Plant ground cover on slopes and build retaining walls. In mudflow areas, build channels or deflection walls to direct the flow around buildings. Remember: If you build walls to divert debris flow and the flow lands on a neighbors property, you may be liable for damages. Recognize Landslide Warning Signs Changes occur in your landscape such as patterns of storm-water drainage on slopes (especially the places where runoff water converges) land movement, small slides, flows, or progressively leaning trees. Doors or windows stick or jam for the first time. New cracks appear in plaster, tile, brick, or foundations. Outside walls, walks, or stairs begin pulling away from the building. Slowly developing, widening cracks appear on the ground or on paved areas such as streets or driveways. Underground utility lines break. Bulging ground appears at the base of a slope. Water breaks through the ground surface in new locations. Fences, retaining walls, utility poles, or trees tilt or move. Faint rumbling sound that increases in volume is noticeable as the landslide nears. The ground slopes downward in one direction and may begin shifting in that direction under your feet. Unusual sounds, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together, might indicate moving debris. Collapsed pavement, mud, fallen rocks, and other indications of possible debris flow can be seen when driving (embankments along roadsides are particularly susceptible to landslides). Desertification The most critical and increasing threat to sustainable land use is desertification. It is estimated that desertification affects one-quarter of the total land area of the world, or about 70 percent of all dry lands, and threatens the livelihoods of over 1 billion people in more than 100 countries. Desertification is closely linked with rural poverty and hunger. It exacerbates conditions leading to famine, migration, internal displacement, political instability and conflict. Desertification is the degradation of land in arid, semi arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various climatic variations, but primarily from human activities. Current desertification is taking place much faster worldwide and usually arises from the demands of increasing population that settle on the land in order to grow crops and graze animals. A major impact of desertification is loss of biodiversity and productive capacity, for example, by transition from grassland to perennial shrubs. The change in vegetation induces desertification. In the Madagascar, 10% of the entire country has been lost to desertification due to zoom agriculture by indigenous people. In Africa, with current trends of soil degradation, the continent will be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025 according to one estimate. Deserts may be separated from the surroundings by less arid areas, mountains and other landforms. In other areas, there is a gradual transition from a dry to a more humid environment, making it more difficult to determine the desert border. These transition zones have very fragile, delicately balanced ecosystems. Desert fringes are a mosaic of microclimates. Small hollows support vegetation that picks up heat from the hot winds and protects the land from the prevailing winds. After rainfall the vegetated areas are distinctly cooler than the surroundings. In these marginal areas human activity may stress the ecosystem beyond its tolerance limit, resulting in degradation of the land. By pounding the soil with their hooves, livestock compact the substrate, increase the proportion of fine material, and reduce the percolation rate of the soil, thus encouraging erosion by wind and water. Grazing and collection of firewood reduce or eliminate plants that help to bind the soil. In large desert areas, sand dunes can encroach on human habitats. Sand dunes move through wind. In a major dust storm, dunes may move tens of meters. And like snow, sand avalanches, falling down the steep slopes of the dunes that face away from the winds, move the dunes forward. Droughts by themselves cannot cause desertification. Drought is just a contributing factor. The causes are social and economic, having to do with access to resources, power and economics. Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands, and well-managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands has accelerated desertification. In some areas, nomads moving to less arid areas disrupt the local ecosystem and increase the rate of erosion of the land. Nomads are trying to escape the desert, but because of their land-use practices, they bring the desert with them. Some arid and semi-arid lands can support crops, but additional pressure from greater population or decreases in rainfall can lead to the disappearance of the few plants present. The soil becomes exposed to wind, causing soil particles to be deposited elsewhere. The top layer becomes eroded. With the removal of shade, rates of evaporation increase and salts become drawn up to the surface. This is salinisation, which inhibits plant growth. The loss of plants causes less moisture to be retained in the area, which may change the climate pattern leading to lower rainfall. The degradation of formerly productive land is a complex process. It involves multiple causes, and it proceeds at varying rates in different climates. Desertification may intensify a general climatic trend toward greater aridity, or it may initiate a change in local climate. Desertification does not occur in linear, easily mappable patterns. Deserts advance erratically, forming patches on their borders. Areas far from natural deserts can degrade quickly to barren soil, rock, or sand through poor land management. The presence of a nearby desert has no direct relationship to desertification. Unfortunately, an area undergoing desertification is brought to public attention only after the process is well under way. Often little data are available to indicate the previous state of the ecosystem or the rate of degradation. Combating desertification is complex and difficult. Over-exploitation of the land and climate variations can have identical impacts, which makes it very difficult to choose the right mitigation strategy. Measures like reforestation cannot achieve their goals if global warming continues. Forests may die when it gets drier, and more frequent extreme events could become a threat for agriculture, water supply, and infrastructure. Current desertification Overgrazing and to a lesser extent drought in the 1930s transformed parts of the Great Plains in the United States into the Dust Bowl. During that time, a considerable fraction of the population abandoned their homes to escape the unproductive lands. Improved agricultural and water management have prevented a disaster of the earlier magnitude from recurring, but desertification presently affects millions of people with primary occurrence in the less developed countries. Desertification is widespread in many areas of the Peoples Republic of China. The populations of rural areas have increased along with an increase in the livestock; the land available for grazing has decreased. Importing of European cattle, which have higher food intakes, has made things worse. Human overpopulation is leading to destruction of tropical wet and dry forests, due to widening practices of zoom cultivation. Deforestation has led to large scale erosion, loss of soil nutrients and sometimes total desertification. Overgrazing has made the Rio Puerco Basin of central New Mexico one of the most eroded river basins of the western United States and has increased the high sediment content of the river. Overgrazing is also an issue with some regions of South Africa such as the Waterberg Massif, although restoration of native habitat and game has been pursued vigorously since 1980. The Desert of Maine is a 40-acre dune of glacial silt near Freeport, Maine. Overgrazing and soil erosion exposed the cap of the dune, revealing the desert as a small patch that continued to grow, overtaking the land. Ghana and Nigeria currently experience desertification; in the latter, desertification overtakes about 1,355 square miles of land per year. The Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, are also affected. More than 80% of Afghanistans land is subject to soil erosion and desertification. In Kazakhstan, nearly half of the cropland has been abandoned since 1980. In Iran, sand storms were said to have bur